In all languages, the terminology of law is cryptic and difficult to navigate, and Irish is no exception. Many of these words will probably sound clumsy and artificial. However, it is quite important to learn to use legal terms in Irish. Here is a list. (Of course, in the long run we need court dramas in the Irish language, so that the terms can be learned in context.)
"an accomplice" - for this we have two terms, comhchoirí (masculine, plural comhchoirithe) and neartaitheoir (masculine, genitive neartaitheora, plural neartaitheoirí). As far as I know, there is no difference in meaning between the two terms. For an "accessory to crime", there is another word, cúlpháirtí.
"to acquit" - éigiontaigh!/éigiontú
"an affidavit" is, as you should know, a sworn statement, and the word for that is mionnscríbhinn. This is a combination of mionn (oath) and scríbhinn (writing), and it is obviously femininen (an mhionnscríbhinn, na mionnscríbhinne, na mionnscríbhinní, na mionnscríbhinní). Swearing by the Bible or other holy book is called (idiomatically, not juridically) an leabhar a thabhairt, i.e. to give the book. If you do not want to swear by the book, you give an affirmation, in Irish dearbhascadh. (This is basically the verbal noun of the verb dearbhasc!/dearbhascadh 'to affirm'.)
"to appear in court" is láithriú i gcúirt. "He appeared in court": Láithrigh sé i gcúirt.
"a barrister" is abhcóide, as Eimear pointed out in the comments. Thanks! Go raibh míle maith agat!
"to commit, to perpetrate": no special verb is needed. Use déan!/déanamh. "He committed a heinous crime": rinne sé coir ghránna. "It never occurred to me that he should have perpetrated such a crime": níor rith liom riamh go ndéanfadh sé a leithéid de choir.
"common law" is an dlí coiteann, and note that in Irish it takes the definite article. In English, generic abstract nouns typically omit the article, but in Irish, they take the article. That is why we have an Ghaeilge, while English uses just Irish. (And that is also why they often speak of "the Gaelic" in Scotland - that is an Irish or Sc. Gaelic article usage carried over to English.)
"a complainant" is gearánach, "a complaint" is gearán, and "to withdraw a complaint" is gearán a aistarraingt. "He withdrew his complaint" = d'aistarraing sé a ghearán.
"a court (of law)" is cúirt, of course - an chúirt, na cúirte, na cúirteanna, na gcúirteanna. A district court is cúirt dúiche, a circuit court is cúirt chuarda, a high court is ardchúirt. The weird word cuarda is a genitive form of cuaird (feminine noun), which means "circuit" in the juridical sense. There are eight juridical circuits (i.e. circuit court jurisdictions) in Ireland: Cuaird Átha Cliath, Cuaird Chorcaí, Cuaird Lár na Tíre, Cuaird an Tuaiscirt, Cuaird an Oirthir, Cuaird an Iardheiscirt, Cuaird an Oirdheiscirt, Cuaird an Iarthair.
"custody" (of a child) is as legal term coimeád. "He has the custody of the child": tá coimeád an linbh aige.
"a deed poll" (plural: deeds poll) is the legal expression of an intention. Typically, if you want to change your name from, say, John Smith (or Johann Schmidt, or Jan Kowalski, or Ivan Kuznetsov, or Juha Seppänen) to Seán Mac Gabhann, you do it by deed poll. The Irish term is gníomhas aonpháirtí, i.e. one-party or one-sided deed. Gníomhas means 'deed' as a legal term. Deed poll as the way to change your name is typical of common law countries, where your legal name is based on common repute. Gníomhas is a masculine noun (genitive and plural: gníomhais), the aonpháirtí part is technically the genitive form of a noun.
"ejectment" of a tenant is eisiachtain (feminine, genitive eisiachtana). "The court ejected the tenant." D'eisiacht an chúirt an tionónta. Note that this verb only refers to court proceedings - the concrete task of ejecting or evicting a tenant is tionónta a dhíbirt, a chur amach. So, the bailiffs evicted the family: chuir na baillí an teaghlach amach, dhíbir na baillí an teaghlach. Historically speaking, there is also the verb díshealbhaigh!/díshealbhú "to evict, to dispossess": Dhíshealbhaigh na Gaill an teaghlach Gaelach. "The wicked Englishmen evicted the Irish Gaelic family."
"execution": As a legal term, it is forghníomhú: "the sentence was executed": forghníomhaíodh an bhreith. However, note that forghníomhaigh!/forghníomhú "to execute" is pure legalese and will not be understood by those who only speak everyday Irish. They will prefer such expressions as cur i gcrích or comhlíonadh. When this verb is used as a eufemism for putting somebody to death, it is best translated into Irish with básaigh!/bású, or with the exact Irish equivalent of "put to death", i.e. cuir!/cur chun báis. Chuir na saighdiúirí dearga an sagart chun báis "the redcoats executed the priest".
"a felony" - feileonacht. It is of course feminine: an fheileonacht, na feileonachta, na feileonachtaí, na bhfeileonachtaí. It is not an official legal term in Ireland anymore - instead, tromchion and cion inghabhála are preferred.
"Grand Jury" is not an Irish institution of law anymore, but if you need to speak of American circumstances or of Irish history, the term is an tArd-Ghiúiré. As you see, it is masculine. For "Federal Grand Jury", I would use Ard-Ghiúiré na Cónaidhme, although there is nothing wrong with An tArd-Ghiúiré Feidearálach.
"an indictment" is díotáil (feminine: an díotáil, na díotála), and the verb "to indict" is obviously díotáil!/díotáil. "To issue an indictment" is díotáil a eisiúint, "Grand Jury issued an indictment" is d'eisigh an tArd-Ghiúiré díotáil.
"an injunction" is a court order (ordú cúirte) telling you to stop or start doing something specific. The Irish term for an injunction is urghaire, and it is feminine (an urghaire, na hurghaire, na hurghairí, na n-urghairí).
"a judge" is breitheamh. This is a somewhat irregular masculine: an breitheamh, an bhreithimh; na breithiúna, na mbreithiún. Note that a justice of the peace is giúistís (an giúistís, an ghiúistís; na giúistísí, na ngiúistísí). A dialectal word for the latter (used by the Ulster author Seán Bán Mac Meanman) was giúsach péas.
"jurisdiction" is dlínse, and that is a feminine word.
"a jury" is giúiré (masculine), or in a more generic sense coiste cúirte. A juror, a member of the jury, is called giúróir (masculine: an giúróir, an ghiúróra, na giúróirí, na ngiúróirí).
"a lawyer" is dlíodóir or in books written by Ulster authors dlítheoir (masculine, genitive dlíodóra, dlítheora, plural dlíodóirí), a solicitor is aturnae (masculine, plural form aturnaetha), which is of course the same word as attorney.
"a legal remedy" is réiteach dlí.
"a litigant", i.e. a party to a case, is dlíthí, masculine, with the plural form dlíthithe. If you learned your Irish in Connemara, that word will put you in umar an éadóchais, I am afraid.
"a manslaughter" is called dúnorgain, and that is a feminine noun. The genitive form is dúnorgana.
"a misdemeanour" - oilghníomh. It is a masculine noun: an t-oilghníomh, an oilghnímh, na hoilghníomhartha, na n-oilghníomhartha. Note that it is not an official legal term in Ireland anymore (the utterly clumsy neamh-thromchion and cion neamh-inghabhála are preferred in officialese).
"a murder" is dúnmharú, as everybody should know already. However, the verb dúnmharaigh!/dúnmharú is kind of heavy and clumsy; maraigh!/marú is usually preferable. A murderer is obviously dúnmharfóir; I'd call a spree killer spraoimharfóir, a serial killer sraithmharfóir.
"an offense" is cion, a masculine noun (men commit most crimes!), genitive ciona, plural cionta. There is of course the feminine word coir too, which means simply "crime".
"parole": "on parole" is either ar parúl or ar d'onóir (ar m'onóir, ar d'onóir, ar a onóir, ar a honóir), both are mentioned in Ó Dónaill's dictionary. Ar parúl is again an example of ar not eclipsing the first consonant of a following naked noun when it's about an abstract situation, not a concrete position. (Similarly: ar fionraí, ar promhadh, ar tarraingt "in traction"...)
"a plaintiff" is gearánaí (masculine, plural is gearánaithe). It is regrettably very easy to mistake for gearánach, complainant.
"a plea bargain": the online terminology database gives margáil pléadála, which to me suggests the act of plea-bargaining. I am quite tempted to call the result margadh pléadála.
"to plead guilty/innocent": pléadáil ciontach/éigiontach. "He pled guilty." Phléadáil sé ciontach.
"police" is in the Republic of Ireland called An Garda Síochána or the Guardian of Peace; police officers are accordingly spoken of as gardaí; even in Irish English the term "guards" is reportedly used. Note that the Irish word for peace (síocháin, feminine, gen. síochána; in Ulster sometimes the masculine síochamh, gen. síochaimh) also means public order. The English word "peace" has actually been borrowed into Irish as péas - this is indeclinable, except by initial mutation: an péas, an phéas; na péas, na bpéas - and means "policeman". Moreover, there is the word póilín, which is probably the most neutral word for a policeman. From this we have the verb póilínigh!/póilíniú "to police" and the noun póilíneacht. A police force is in Irish a policing force, fórsa póilíneachta. A constabulary is constáblacht - as in Constáblacht Ríoga na hÉireann "the Royal Irish Constabulary", the members of which were called in Irish na saighdiúirí dubha "the black soldiers", although strictly speaking their uniforms were dark green (dubhuaine), not black (dubh). (This was to distinguish them from the British Army, which was called na saighdiúirí dearga, the red soldiers, i.e. redcoats. Note that even the expression an tArm Dearg "the Red Army" in Irish suggests the British Army, at least in 19th century folklore.)
"probate": the noun is probháid, and it is feminine. Usually it is used just as a genitive attribute, such as in ábhair phrobháide "probate matters".
"probation": this is promhadh, masculine, genitive promhaidh. "To be on probation": bheith ar promhadh. Note that in phrases like this, which refer to abstract situation rather than concrete position, ar does not lenite the following word (although there is an exception to this exception, ar fheabhas).
"to prosecute": ionchúisigh!/ionchúiseamh. The prosecutor is an t-ionchúisitheoir, and the Chief Public Prosecutor is an Príomh-Ionchúisitheoir Poiblí.
"a safety order" is one of the documents a court can issue to fight domestic violence, and in Irish it is called ordú sábháilteachta. The related concept of "barring order" is in Irish ordú urchoisc.
"a summons" is officially toghairm, which is a feminine noun, but this is a very literary, classical word, and gairm dlí is preferable. A summons is served, and the verb for "to serve" is in this, and only this, sense seirbheáil!/seirbheáil. An "originating summons" is toghairm thionscnaimh, a "plenary summons" is toghairm iomlánach, a "summary summons" is toghairm achomair, and a "special summons" is toghairm speisialta. A "subpoena" is even in Irish subpoena, as the word is basically unadulterated Latin.
"tort" is tort in Irish too: an tort, gen. an torta, plural na tortanna.
"a trial" is triail, and it is feminine, having the genitive form trialach and the plural trialacha. "To stand trial" is triail a sheasamh according to the standard dictionaries, but note the vintage Ulster expression an dlí a sheasamh.
"a tribunal" is binse (masculine: an binse, an bhinse, na binsí, na mbinsí - and yes, it is the same word as the Irish for "bench").
"a verdict" is fíorasc, but it is again a purely legal term that won't be understood by everyone. It is masculine: an fíorasc, an fhíoraisc, na fíoraisc, na bhfíorasc.
"to waive" - tarscaoil/tarscaoileadh. "He waived the claim" - tharscaoil sé an t-éileamh. "A waiver" is tarscaoileadh as a noun.
Tuesday, May 21, 2019
Those regular verbs
I already taught you the irregular verbs. Now let's get to the regular ones.
Present tense has the following endings:
CAITH:
caithim
caithir/caitheann tú
caitheann sé
caithimid/caitheann muid
caitheann sibh
caithid/caitheann siad
caitear
FAN:
fanaim
fanair/fanann tú
fanann sé
fanaimid/fanann muid
fanann sibh
fanaid/fanann siad
fantar
OSCAIL:
osclaím
osclaír/osclaíonn tú
osclaíonn sé
osclaímid/osclaíonn muid
osclaíonn sibh
osclaíd/osclaíonn siad
osclaítear
LAGAIGH:
lagaím
lagaír/lagaíonn tú
lagaíonn sé
lagaímid/lagaíonn muid
lagaíonn sibh
lagaíd/lagaíonn siad
lagaítear
The form caithim, fanaim, osclaím, lagaím is necessary in the standard language. The second person singular forms caithir, fanair, osclaír, lagaír are very rare these days, but they do find some use in literature - even such a quintessentially Connemara writer as Pádhraic Óg Ó Conaire (not to be confused with the more famous Pádraic Ó Conaire; Pádhraic Óg was a writer of rural prose in a style somewhat reminiscent of the Ulster classic Séamus Ó Grianna) perceived them as the correct literary forms.
The form caithimid, fanaimid, osclaímid, lagaímid is also standard Irish, but for many verbs of the first conjugation this form sounds too much like the corresponding future form. I would prefer caitheann muid, fanann muid, osclaíonn muid, lagaíonn muid. The construction caitheann sinn, fanann sinn, osclaíonn sinn, lagaíonn sinn sounds a little funny to me, because in those varieties that feel most natural to me, there is at least a tendency to distinguish between muid "we" and sinn "us". However, this is strictly my own gut feeling. I have seen sinn used as subject in some folklore volumes (I think mostly from Northern Mayo), and thus, caitheann sinn, fanann sinn, osclaíonn sinn, lagaíonn sinn have good Gaeltacht pedigree.
The form caithid, fanaid, osclaíd, lagaíd is strictly Munster Irish, and it can be followed by the pronoun siad; don't be amazed if you see caithid siad, fanaid siad, osclaíd siad, lagaíd siad in a Munster text.
The direct relative form (see my earlier post about direct relative forms!) chaitheas/chaitheanns, fhanas/fhananns, osclaíos/osclaíonns, lagaíos/lagaíonns is most typical of Connacht and Ulster Irish. It is not entirely unknown to Munster Irish though, where it is used in songs, i.e. perceived to be part of older (oral) literature. The form in -s is the older and historically correct one, the form in -nns smacks more of modern colloquial language.
The verbal particles used with regular present forms are ní "not", go "that", nach/ná "that...not" and "not?, whether...not?", an "...?, whether?", and cha(n).
Ní lenites: ní chaitheann, ní fhanann, ní osclaíonn, ní lagaíonn. Go eclipses: go gcaitheann, go bhfanann, go n-osclaíonn, go lagaíonn.
Nach eclipses: nach gcaitheann, nach bhfanann, nach n-osclaíonn, nach lagaíonn.
Ná, which is used in Munster instead of nach, does not affect consonants, but it adds h- to a vowel: ná caitheann, ná fanann, ná hosclaíonn, ná lagaíonn.
An eclipses: an gcaitheann, an bhfanann, an osclaíonn, an lagaíonn.
Cha(n) is only used in Ulster, and it adds future sense to present forms; it usually lenites, but it eclipses d and t and does not affect s-: cha chaitheann, chan fhanann, chan osclaíonn (which is chan fhosclaíonn in Ulster!), cha lagaíonn; cha ndíolann, cha dtarcaisníonn, cha samhlaíonn. Note that the -n of cha(n) is only used before vowels, including vowels preceded by the mute fh-.
Future tense has the following endings:
CAITH:
caithfead/caithfidh mé
caithfir/caithfidh tú
caithfidh sé
caithfeam/caithfimid/caithfidh muid
caithfidh sibh
caithfid/caithfidh siad
caithfear
FAN:
fanfad/fanfaidh mé
fanfair/fanfaidh tú
fanfaidh sé
fanfam/fanfaimid/fanfaidh muid
fanfaidh sibh
fanfaid/fanfaidh siad
fanfar
OSCAIL:
osclód/osclóidh mé
osclóir/osclóidh tú
osclóidh sé
osclóm/osclóimid/osclóidh muid
osclóidh sibh
osclóid/osclóidh siad
osclófar
LAGAIGH:
lagód/lagóidh mé
lagóir/lagóidh tú
lagóidh sé
lagóm/lagóimid/lagóidh muid
lagóidh sibh
lagóid/lagóidh siad
lagófar
As you see, the short verbs (first conjugation) insert a -f-, the long verbs (the second conjugation) insert a long -ó-. How and whether the -f- is pronounced at all, is a question of dialect, but a pronunciation of this -f- as [h] elsewhere and as [f] in the impersonal (autonomous) form (caithfear, fanfar, osclófar, lagófar) is widely accepted. Note that the [h] pronunciation in many verbs amounts to the devoicing of a previous consonant: scríobhfaidh will be pronounced as if written /scríofaidh/.
The final -idh is almost or entirely mute in Connemara, a short [i] in Ulster, and of course an [-ig] in Munster.
The long -ó- is of course written -eo- after a slender consonant, as in the verb saibhrigh:
saibhreod/saibhreoidh mé
saibhreoir/saibhreoidh tú
saibhreoidh sé
saibhreom/saibhreoimid/saibhreoidh muid
saibhreoidh sibh
saibhreoid/saibhreoidh siad
saibhreofar
In Ulster, the forms with the long -ó- have audibly two syllables, so that the -óidh/-eoidh ending is pronounced [axi] or [ahi], which is commonly written as -óchaidh/-eochaidh. Thus, saibhreochaidh, lagóchaidh and so on.
One feature that is not exclusively Ulster Irish although most common in Ulster literature is the intrusive future. Intrusive future forms are possible with syncopated verbs, i.e. those which drop the second syllable of the stem before the endings - such as oscail here, although it is most commonly foscail in Ulster. Anyway, such verbs as foscail can take the two-syllable future forms all right: fosclóchaidh; but it is also possible that the long ó intrudes into the stem: foscólfaidh.
Note that in Ulster the long but unstressed o turns into a short but clear a sound (which is also a common way to pronounce the short and stressed o sound), so that the difference between the two future forms is basically very slight: fosclóchaidh is pronounced [fasklahi] but foscólfaidh [faskalhi].
As I noted, the intrusive future is not unique to Ulster, but I first became conscious of it reading Cora Cinniúna, i.e. the short stories of Séamus Ó Grianna. I am sure, though, that there is an instance of tosónfaidh somewhere in Peig. Tosónfaidh is the intrusive future of tosnaigh!/tosnú, which is the Munster dialect form of tosaigh!/tosú.
The verbs ending in -áil such as sábháil, seiceáil are basically first conjugation: sábhálfaidh, seiceálfaidh (note that the consonant becomes broad before the future ending). However, in Ulster ears the -álfaidh part sounds exactly the same as the -ólfaidh of the intrusive future, so that these verbs tend to be perceived as second conjugation. (In fact, in Séamus Ó Grianna's stories as edited by Niall Ó Donaill, such spellings as sábhólfaidh are used, so as to convey how these verb forms are perceived by a speaker of traditional Ulster Irish.) This then leads to the introduction of such non-intrusive second conjugation forms as sábhlóchaidh and such second-conjugation verbal nouns as sábhailt. Thus, in Ulster the -áil verbs tend to drift into the second conjugation.
The forms with personal endings are, as usual, most typically used in Munster Irish. The forms caithfead, fanfad, osclód, lagód and caithfir, fanfair, osclóir, lagóir are part of most good speakers' passive knowledge. On the other hand, while the forms caithfeam, fanfam, osclóm, lagóm are the historically correct forms for first person plural, these days they are very exclusively Munster Irish and are not even understood elsewhere. In fact, I was already quite fluent in the language when I first met these forms.
And as you should remember from my post on relative clauses, there is a direct relative form: chaithfeas, fhanfas, osclós, lagós.
In correct Irish, future is not used after má 'if', but it is used after nuair 'when', when there is a future form in the main clause. The nuair clause is historically a direct relative clause, and can take the relative -s. Thus, the following are correct:
Má thagann sé abhaile, beidh lúcháir orainn.
Nuair a thiocfaidh sé abhaile, beidh lúcháir orainn.
Nuair a thiocfas sé abhaile, beidh lúcháir orainn.
The first example means 'If he comes home, we'll be happy', the two others, 'When he comes home, we'll be happy'.
Subjunctive present has the ending -e in first conjugation forms and -í in second conjugation forms:
go gcaithe mé, tú, sé. muid, sibh, siad
go gcaitear
go bhfana mé, tú, sé, muid, sibh, siad
go bhfantar
go n-osclaí mé, tú, sé, muid, sibh, siad
go n-osclaítear
go lagaí mé, tú, sé, muid, sibh, siad
go lagaítear
If personal endings are used with subjunctive present, they are the same as those of future, but without the -f-/-ó-, -eo-; go gcaithead, go bhfanad, go n-osclaíod, go lagaíod for first person singular, go gcaitheam, go bhfanam, go n-osclaíom, go lagaíom for first person plural, for instance. Subjunctive present is used in optative expressions, i.e. wishes: go n-éirí leat "may you be successful", nár lagaí Dia do lámh "may God not weaken your hand", i.e. "more power to you". Note that go eclipses, but nár lenites. Moreover, subjunctive present is used after mura/mara/muna "unless", sula/sara "before" when the main sentence has future. (However, in modern language, future has mostly ousted this usage of the present subjunctive.)
Past tense, or the punctual past. This corresponds only partly to the English past tense. It has a stronger sense of perfectivity, i.e. the action having been completed, than the English past tense, and can often be used for translating the English perfect or pluperfect tense. Let's take an example. Right now, there is a news item at Reuters.com that can be expressed in one sentence: "A Texas teenager was found guilty of murdering an Iraqi man who had just arrived in the United States." As they say, no news is good news, and news tends to be bad news, but if I want to translate this into Irish, I will use the past tense: ciontaíodh déagóir ó Texas i ndúnmharú fir Iarácaigh nár tháinig go dtí na Stáit Aontaithe ach go gairid roimhe sin. (Or, if you prefer so: fuarthas déagóir ó Texas ciontach i ndúnmharú...)
So much about usage, but let's talk about morphology.
CAITH:
chaitheas/chaith mé
chaithis/chaith tú
chaith sé
chaitheamar/chaith muid
chaitheabhair/chaith sibh
chaitheadar/chaith siad
caitheadh
FAN:
d'fhanas/d'fhan mé
d'fhanais/d'fhan tú
d'fhan sé
d'fhanamar/d'fhan muid
d'fhanabhair/d'fhan sibh
d'fhanadar/d'fhan siad
fanadh
OSCAIL:
d'osclaíos/d'oscail mé
d'osclaís/d'oscail tú
d'oscail sé
d'osclaíomar/d'oscail muid
d'osclaíobhair/d'oscail sibh
d'osclaíodar/d'oscail siad
(h)osclaíodh
LAGAIGH:
lagaíos/lagaigh mé
lagaís/lagaigh tú
lagaigh sé
lagaíomar/lagaigh muid
lagaíobhair/lagaigh sibh
lagaíodar/lagaigh siad
lagaíodh
The regular past basically takes the particles níor, ar, gur, nár, char, which lenite. However, the regular past autonomous form resists this lenition: níor fhan, gur fhan, nár fhan, ar fhan, níor chaith, gur chaith, nár chaith, ar chaith, but níor fanadh, gur fanadh, nár fanadh, ar fanadh, níor caitheadh, nár caitheadh, gur caitheadh, ar caitheadh. Only in the dialect of Waterford, the past autonomous form of the regular verb is permanently lenited. I never knew this, before I started to read folklore texts in that particular dialect (you can find them in the yearbook of the Ring of Waterford Gaeltacht, An Linn Bhuí, or in the folklore collections Ar Bóthar Dom and Leabhar Mhaidhc Dháith).
On the other hand, the -r particles are disappearing in Kerry Irish, and you should not be amazed to find such forms as go gcaith sé, go gcaitheas, go gcaitheadar in texts written by Kerry natives - note though that such older writers as Pádraig Ua Maoileoin, while writing in unadulterated Kerry dialect, did use the -r particles in past tense. Maidhc Dainín Ó Sé on the other hand seems to write as he speaks, so his books are full of such forms as go gcaitheas.
As usually, the personal endings are typically confined to Munster Irish (although older generation Connacht writers such as Pádhraic Óg Ó Conaire do make use of them too). I could not care less about which are accepted as part of standard language, but my impression is that first person singular forms (chaitheas, d'fhanas, d'osclaíos, lagaíos) and second person singular forms (chaithis, d'fhanais, d'osclaís, lagaís) as well as second person plural forms (chaitheabhair, d'fhanabhair, d'osclaíobhair, lagaiobhair) are strictly Munster Irish these days, while the -amar and -adar suffixes are more mainstream. Note by the way that in Kerry, -amar has the form -amair.
Adding a hiatus h- to the initial vowel of the past autonomous form is not standard, but it is quite widespread.
In Munster, do can be used even where the past tense form begins with a consonant (and in Munster folklore volumes reproducing the exact pronunciation, you should not be surprised to see things like do dh'fhanas).
Conditional mood. In Irish, conditional mood is the same for present and past: dhéanfainn é means both "I would do it" and "I would have done it". It has the following forms:
CAITH:
chaithfinn
chaithfeá
chaithfeadh sé
chaithfimis
chaithfeadh sibh
chaithfidís
chaithfí
FAN:
d'fhanfainn
d'fhanfá
d'fhanfadh sé
d'fhanfaimis
d'fhanfadh sibh
d'fhanfaidís
d'fhanfaí
OSCAIL:
d'osclóinn
d'osclófá
d'osclódh sé
d'osclóimis
d'osclódh sibh
d'osclóidís
d'osclófaí
LAGAIGH:
lagóinn
lagófá
lagódh sé
lagóimis
lagódh sibh
lagóidís
lagófaí
As in the past tense, the first consonant is lenited, and a d' is added to an initial vowel or fh-. However, the -r- particles are never used - you use go, nach (ná), ní, cha(n), an: an bhfanfá? ní fhanfainn! chan fhanfainn! nach bhfanfadh sé? (Munster: ná fanfadh sé?). If you see such a form as *níor fhanfadh, and the writer is a native speaker, you can be sure that he or she is from Munster and unsure about where to use the -r particles correctly. (This is what we call hypercorrection in English and forcheartú in Irish - i.e., extending a rule to where it does not apply, in an attempt to correct your nonstandard language.)
In Ulster, the conditional endings of the second conjugation again have two syllables (in books such as Cora Cinniúna with a dialectal spelling, you will see such examples as lagóchainn, lagóchadh sé; and probably lagóchthá and lagóchthaí instead of lagófá, lagófaí). And of course there are similar tendencies to use intrusive forms (d'fhoscólfá ~ d'fhosclófá).
As regards the pronunciation of the -f-, it is usually a [h], but an audible [f] in second person singular and in the autonomous form. (Note though that this rule does not apply to every dialect.) As in the future tense, if the verb stem ends in a voiced consonant, the [h] fuses with this to yield a devoiced one - thus, scríobhfainn is pronounced as scríofainn, sciobfainn as sciopainn, and so on.
The final -dh is usually pronounced as broad -ch (German "ach!"), but in Ulster it is a short u sound. Before a personal pronoun beginning with s-, i.e. sé, sí, sibh, siad, the -dh is at least in Ulster (but probably even in some other dialects) usually pronounced as -t. Thus, d'fhanfadh Seán is pronounced d'fhanfu Seán, but d'fhanfadh sé is more like d'fhanfait sé.
The personal endings -imis, -idís often take an extra -t: -imist, -idíst. IMHO this is most typically Ulster and Connacht Irish.
Sometimes the autonomous form is delenited under the influence of the past tense forms: fanfaí, caithfí, but I don't think this is a particularly stable or regular feature in any dialect.
Habitual past. Habitual past, or imperfect, tells what used to happen in the past, often, frequently, repeatedly. It has basically the following forms:
CAITH:
chaithinn
chaiteá
chaitheadh sé
chaithimis
chaitheadh sibh
chaithidís
chaití
FAN:
d'fhanainn
d'fhantá
d'fhanadh sé
d'fhanaimis
d'fhanadh sibh
d'fhanaidís
d'fhantaí
OSCAIL:
d'osclaíonn
d'osclaíteá
d'osclaíodh sé
d'osclaímis
d'osclaíodh sibh
d'osclaídís
d'osclaítí
There is a very worrying tendency to use punctual past instead of habitual past in some elementary textbooks. This must be condemned, because it is quite unambiguously wrong. It is much better to use conditional mood instead of habitual past, because this is how some native dialects do, too.
Habitual past, as conditional mood, lenites initial consonants and takes the d' before vowels and mute fh's. However, it takes the r-less particles in negative, interrogative and subordinate contexts: nach bhfanainn/ná fanainn, chan fhanainn, ní fhanainn, go bhfanainn, an bhfanainn.
Habitual past forms can be used after dhá "if", mura/muna/mana "if not" and sula/sara, if there is a conditional mood in the main clause. In this context, the forms of habitual past are not called habitual past, but past subjunctive. Dhá n-osclófá an doras, bheadh cead isteach ag gach cineál feithidí. Or: Dhá n-osclaíteá an doras, bheadh cead isteach ag gach cineál feithidí. 'If you opened the door, all kinds of insects could get in.'
My impression is that a native writer who uses both habitual past and conditional mood for referring to habitual past actions, there is a slight but perceptible difference between the two:
Thagadh sé ar cuairt chugam agus bheannaíodh sé do na cuairteoirí go léir. D'ólfadh sé braon agus bheadh comhrá aige le duine nó dhó, agus chaithfeadh sé tamall ag imirt chártaí nó ag damhsa.
In this example, the habitual past forms (bold) refer to what always happened, i.e. this person used to come to visit me and greet everybody. Then we start using the conditional forms, when we refer to what typically happened, what this person typically might do at such an occasion, but did not do it in a particular order or not every time. If I say:
Thagadh sé ar cuairt chugam agus bheannaíodh sé do na cuairteoirí go léir. D'óladh sé braon agus bhíodh comhrá aige le duine nó dhó, agus chaitheadh sé tamall ag imirt chártaí nó ag damhsa.
...the impression conveyed is much more one of a ritual happening always in the same way and in the same order of events.
I confess that this is only my gut feeling, although it is based on a scene somewhere in Conchúr Ó Síocháin's Gaeltacht autobiography Seanchas Chléire (known in English as The Man from Cape Clear). I will make the relevant fragment available here (with all bibliographical references) as soon as I can (and as soon as I find the book).
By the way: in County Cork Irish it is common to leave the habitual past autonomous form delenited, which is another thing you will learn reading Ó Síocháin's book. Thus, caití and fantaí are normal occurrences in that particular dialect.
Present tense has the following endings:
CAITH:
caithim
caithir/caitheann tú
caitheann sé
caithimid/caitheann muid
caitheann sibh
caithid/caitheann siad
caitear
FAN:
fanaim
fanair/fanann tú
fanann sé
fanaimid/fanann muid
fanann sibh
fanaid/fanann siad
fantar
OSCAIL:
osclaím
osclaír/osclaíonn tú
osclaíonn sé
osclaímid/osclaíonn muid
osclaíonn sibh
osclaíd/osclaíonn siad
osclaítear
LAGAIGH:
lagaím
lagaír/lagaíonn tú
lagaíonn sé
lagaímid/lagaíonn muid
lagaíonn sibh
lagaíd/lagaíonn siad
lagaítear
The form caithim, fanaim, osclaím, lagaím is necessary in the standard language. The second person singular forms caithir, fanair, osclaír, lagaír are very rare these days, but they do find some use in literature - even such a quintessentially Connemara writer as Pádhraic Óg Ó Conaire (not to be confused with the more famous Pádraic Ó Conaire; Pádhraic Óg was a writer of rural prose in a style somewhat reminiscent of the Ulster classic Séamus Ó Grianna) perceived them as the correct literary forms.
The form caithimid, fanaimid, osclaímid, lagaímid is also standard Irish, but for many verbs of the first conjugation this form sounds too much like the corresponding future form. I would prefer caitheann muid, fanann muid, osclaíonn muid, lagaíonn muid. The construction caitheann sinn, fanann sinn, osclaíonn sinn, lagaíonn sinn sounds a little funny to me, because in those varieties that feel most natural to me, there is at least a tendency to distinguish between muid "we" and sinn "us". However, this is strictly my own gut feeling. I have seen sinn used as subject in some folklore volumes (I think mostly from Northern Mayo), and thus, caitheann sinn, fanann sinn, osclaíonn sinn, lagaíonn sinn have good Gaeltacht pedigree.
The form caithid, fanaid, osclaíd, lagaíd is strictly Munster Irish, and it can be followed by the pronoun siad; don't be amazed if you see caithid siad, fanaid siad, osclaíd siad, lagaíd siad in a Munster text.
The direct relative form (see my earlier post about direct relative forms!) chaitheas/chaitheanns, fhanas/fhananns, osclaíos/osclaíonns, lagaíos/lagaíonns is most typical of Connacht and Ulster Irish. It is not entirely unknown to Munster Irish though, where it is used in songs, i.e. perceived to be part of older (oral) literature. The form in -s is the older and historically correct one, the form in -nns smacks more of modern colloquial language.
The verbal particles used with regular present forms are ní "not", go "that", nach/ná "that...not" and "not?, whether...not?", an "...?, whether?", and cha(n).
Ní lenites: ní chaitheann, ní fhanann, ní osclaíonn, ní lagaíonn. Go eclipses: go gcaitheann, go bhfanann, go n-osclaíonn, go lagaíonn.
Nach eclipses: nach gcaitheann, nach bhfanann, nach n-osclaíonn, nach lagaíonn.
Ná, which is used in Munster instead of nach, does not affect consonants, but it adds h- to a vowel: ná caitheann, ná fanann, ná hosclaíonn, ná lagaíonn.
An eclipses: an gcaitheann, an bhfanann, an osclaíonn, an lagaíonn.
Cha(n) is only used in Ulster, and it adds future sense to present forms; it usually lenites, but it eclipses d and t and does not affect s-: cha chaitheann, chan fhanann, chan osclaíonn (which is chan fhosclaíonn in Ulster!), cha lagaíonn; cha ndíolann, cha dtarcaisníonn, cha samhlaíonn. Note that the -n of cha(n) is only used before vowels, including vowels preceded by the mute fh-.
Future tense has the following endings:
CAITH:
caithfead/caithfidh mé
caithfir/caithfidh tú
caithfidh sé
caithfeam/caithfimid/caithfidh muid
caithfidh sibh
caithfid/caithfidh siad
caithfear
FAN:
fanfad/fanfaidh mé
fanfair/fanfaidh tú
fanfaidh sé
fanfam/fanfaimid/fanfaidh muid
fanfaidh sibh
fanfaid/fanfaidh siad
fanfar
OSCAIL:
osclód/osclóidh mé
osclóir/osclóidh tú
osclóidh sé
osclóm/osclóimid/osclóidh muid
osclóidh sibh
osclóid/osclóidh siad
osclófar
LAGAIGH:
lagód/lagóidh mé
lagóir/lagóidh tú
lagóidh sé
lagóm/lagóimid/lagóidh muid
lagóidh sibh
lagóid/lagóidh siad
lagófar
As you see, the short verbs (first conjugation) insert a -f-, the long verbs (the second conjugation) insert a long -ó-. How and whether the -f- is pronounced at all, is a question of dialect, but a pronunciation of this -f- as [h] elsewhere and as [f] in the impersonal (autonomous) form (caithfear, fanfar, osclófar, lagófar) is widely accepted. Note that the [h] pronunciation in many verbs amounts to the devoicing of a previous consonant: scríobhfaidh will be pronounced as if written /scríofaidh/.
The final -idh is almost or entirely mute in Connemara, a short [i] in Ulster, and of course an [-ig] in Munster.
The long -ó- is of course written -eo- after a slender consonant, as in the verb saibhrigh:
saibhreod/saibhreoidh mé
saibhreoir/saibhreoidh tú
saibhreoidh sé
saibhreom/saibhreoimid/saibhreoidh muid
saibhreoidh sibh
saibhreoid/saibhreoidh siad
saibhreofar
In Ulster, the forms with the long -ó- have audibly two syllables, so that the -óidh/-eoidh ending is pronounced [axi] or [ahi], which is commonly written as -óchaidh/-eochaidh. Thus, saibhreochaidh, lagóchaidh and so on.
One feature that is not exclusively Ulster Irish although most common in Ulster literature is the intrusive future. Intrusive future forms are possible with syncopated verbs, i.e. those which drop the second syllable of the stem before the endings - such as oscail here, although it is most commonly foscail in Ulster. Anyway, such verbs as foscail can take the two-syllable future forms all right: fosclóchaidh; but it is also possible that the long ó intrudes into the stem: foscólfaidh.
Note that in Ulster the long but unstressed o turns into a short but clear a sound (which is also a common way to pronounce the short and stressed o sound), so that the difference between the two future forms is basically very slight: fosclóchaidh is pronounced [fasklahi] but foscólfaidh [faskalhi].
As I noted, the intrusive future is not unique to Ulster, but I first became conscious of it reading Cora Cinniúna, i.e. the short stories of Séamus Ó Grianna. I am sure, though, that there is an instance of tosónfaidh somewhere in Peig. Tosónfaidh is the intrusive future of tosnaigh!/tosnú, which is the Munster dialect form of tosaigh!/tosú.
The verbs ending in -áil such as sábháil, seiceáil are basically first conjugation: sábhálfaidh, seiceálfaidh (note that the consonant becomes broad before the future ending). However, in Ulster ears the -álfaidh part sounds exactly the same as the -ólfaidh of the intrusive future, so that these verbs tend to be perceived as second conjugation. (In fact, in Séamus Ó Grianna's stories as edited by Niall Ó Donaill, such spellings as sábhólfaidh are used, so as to convey how these verb forms are perceived by a speaker of traditional Ulster Irish.) This then leads to the introduction of such non-intrusive second conjugation forms as sábhlóchaidh and such second-conjugation verbal nouns as sábhailt. Thus, in Ulster the -áil verbs tend to drift into the second conjugation.
The forms with personal endings are, as usual, most typically used in Munster Irish. The forms caithfead, fanfad, osclód, lagód and caithfir, fanfair, osclóir, lagóir are part of most good speakers' passive knowledge. On the other hand, while the forms caithfeam, fanfam, osclóm, lagóm are the historically correct forms for first person plural, these days they are very exclusively Munster Irish and are not even understood elsewhere. In fact, I was already quite fluent in the language when I first met these forms.
And as you should remember from my post on relative clauses, there is a direct relative form: chaithfeas, fhanfas, osclós, lagós.
In correct Irish, future is not used after má 'if', but it is used after nuair 'when', when there is a future form in the main clause. The nuair clause is historically a direct relative clause, and can take the relative -s. Thus, the following are correct:
Má thagann sé abhaile, beidh lúcháir orainn.
Nuair a thiocfaidh sé abhaile, beidh lúcháir orainn.
Nuair a thiocfas sé abhaile, beidh lúcháir orainn.
The first example means 'If he comes home, we'll be happy', the two others, 'When he comes home, we'll be happy'.
Subjunctive present has the ending -e in first conjugation forms and -í in second conjugation forms:
go gcaithe mé, tú, sé. muid, sibh, siad
go gcaitear
go bhfana mé, tú, sé, muid, sibh, siad
go bhfantar
go n-osclaí mé, tú, sé, muid, sibh, siad
go n-osclaítear
go lagaí mé, tú, sé, muid, sibh, siad
go lagaítear
If personal endings are used with subjunctive present, they are the same as those of future, but without the -f-/-ó-, -eo-; go gcaithead, go bhfanad, go n-osclaíod, go lagaíod for first person singular, go gcaitheam, go bhfanam, go n-osclaíom, go lagaíom for first person plural, for instance. Subjunctive present is used in optative expressions, i.e. wishes: go n-éirí leat "may you be successful", nár lagaí Dia do lámh "may God not weaken your hand", i.e. "more power to you". Note that go eclipses, but nár lenites. Moreover, subjunctive present is used after mura/mara/muna "unless", sula/sara "before" when the main sentence has future. (However, in modern language, future has mostly ousted this usage of the present subjunctive.)
Past tense, or the punctual past. This corresponds only partly to the English past tense. It has a stronger sense of perfectivity, i.e. the action having been completed, than the English past tense, and can often be used for translating the English perfect or pluperfect tense. Let's take an example. Right now, there is a news item at Reuters.com that can be expressed in one sentence: "A Texas teenager was found guilty of murdering an Iraqi man who had just arrived in the United States." As they say, no news is good news, and news tends to be bad news, but if I want to translate this into Irish, I will use the past tense: ciontaíodh déagóir ó Texas i ndúnmharú fir Iarácaigh nár tháinig go dtí na Stáit Aontaithe ach go gairid roimhe sin. (Or, if you prefer so: fuarthas déagóir ó Texas ciontach i ndúnmharú...)
So much about usage, but let's talk about morphology.
CAITH:
chaitheas/chaith mé
chaithis/chaith tú
chaith sé
chaitheamar/chaith muid
chaitheabhair/chaith sibh
chaitheadar/chaith siad
caitheadh
FAN:
d'fhanas/d'fhan mé
d'fhanais/d'fhan tú
d'fhan sé
d'fhanamar/d'fhan muid
d'fhanabhair/d'fhan sibh
d'fhanadar/d'fhan siad
fanadh
OSCAIL:
d'osclaíos/d'oscail mé
d'osclaís/d'oscail tú
d'oscail sé
d'osclaíomar/d'oscail muid
d'osclaíobhair/d'oscail sibh
d'osclaíodar/d'oscail siad
(h)osclaíodh
LAGAIGH:
lagaíos/lagaigh mé
lagaís/lagaigh tú
lagaigh sé
lagaíomar/lagaigh muid
lagaíobhair/lagaigh sibh
lagaíodar/lagaigh siad
lagaíodh
The regular past basically takes the particles níor, ar, gur, nár, char, which lenite. However, the regular past autonomous form resists this lenition: níor fhan, gur fhan, nár fhan, ar fhan, níor chaith, gur chaith, nár chaith, ar chaith, but níor fanadh, gur fanadh, nár fanadh, ar fanadh, níor caitheadh, nár caitheadh, gur caitheadh, ar caitheadh. Only in the dialect of Waterford, the past autonomous form of the regular verb is permanently lenited. I never knew this, before I started to read folklore texts in that particular dialect (you can find them in the yearbook of the Ring of Waterford Gaeltacht, An Linn Bhuí, or in the folklore collections Ar Bóthar Dom and Leabhar Mhaidhc Dháith).
On the other hand, the -r particles are disappearing in Kerry Irish, and you should not be amazed to find such forms as go gcaith sé, go gcaitheas, go gcaitheadar in texts written by Kerry natives - note though that such older writers as Pádraig Ua Maoileoin, while writing in unadulterated Kerry dialect, did use the -r particles in past tense. Maidhc Dainín Ó Sé on the other hand seems to write as he speaks, so his books are full of such forms as go gcaitheas.
As usually, the personal endings are typically confined to Munster Irish (although older generation Connacht writers such as Pádhraic Óg Ó Conaire do make use of them too). I could not care less about which are accepted as part of standard language, but my impression is that first person singular forms (chaitheas, d'fhanas, d'osclaíos, lagaíos) and second person singular forms (chaithis, d'fhanais, d'osclaís, lagaís) as well as second person plural forms (chaitheabhair, d'fhanabhair, d'osclaíobhair, lagaiobhair) are strictly Munster Irish these days, while the -amar and -adar suffixes are more mainstream. Note by the way that in Kerry, -amar has the form -amair.
Adding a hiatus h- to the initial vowel of the past autonomous form is not standard, but it is quite widespread.
In Munster, do can be used even where the past tense form begins with a consonant (and in Munster folklore volumes reproducing the exact pronunciation, you should not be surprised to see things like do dh'fhanas).
Conditional mood. In Irish, conditional mood is the same for present and past: dhéanfainn é means both "I would do it" and "I would have done it". It has the following forms:
CAITH:
chaithfinn
chaithfeá
chaithfeadh sé
chaithfimis
chaithfeadh sibh
chaithfidís
chaithfí
FAN:
d'fhanfainn
d'fhanfá
d'fhanfadh sé
d'fhanfaimis
d'fhanfadh sibh
d'fhanfaidís
d'fhanfaí
OSCAIL:
d'osclóinn
d'osclófá
d'osclódh sé
d'osclóimis
d'osclódh sibh
d'osclóidís
d'osclófaí
LAGAIGH:
lagóinn
lagófá
lagódh sé
lagóimis
lagódh sibh
lagóidís
lagófaí
As in the past tense, the first consonant is lenited, and a d' is added to an initial vowel or fh-. However, the -r- particles are never used - you use go, nach (ná), ní, cha(n), an: an bhfanfá? ní fhanfainn! chan fhanfainn! nach bhfanfadh sé? (Munster: ná fanfadh sé?). If you see such a form as *níor fhanfadh, and the writer is a native speaker, you can be sure that he or she is from Munster and unsure about where to use the -r particles correctly. (This is what we call hypercorrection in English and forcheartú in Irish - i.e., extending a rule to where it does not apply, in an attempt to correct your nonstandard language.)
In Ulster, the conditional endings of the second conjugation again have two syllables (in books such as Cora Cinniúna with a dialectal spelling, you will see such examples as lagóchainn, lagóchadh sé; and probably lagóchthá and lagóchthaí instead of lagófá, lagófaí). And of course there are similar tendencies to use intrusive forms (d'fhoscólfá ~ d'fhosclófá).
As regards the pronunciation of the -f-, it is usually a [h], but an audible [f] in second person singular and in the autonomous form. (Note though that this rule does not apply to every dialect.) As in the future tense, if the verb stem ends in a voiced consonant, the [h] fuses with this to yield a devoiced one - thus, scríobhfainn is pronounced as scríofainn, sciobfainn as sciopainn, and so on.
The final -dh is usually pronounced as broad -ch (German "ach!"), but in Ulster it is a short u sound. Before a personal pronoun beginning with s-, i.e. sé, sí, sibh, siad, the -dh is at least in Ulster (but probably even in some other dialects) usually pronounced as -t. Thus, d'fhanfadh Seán is pronounced d'fhanfu Seán, but d'fhanfadh sé is more like d'fhanfait sé.
The personal endings -imis, -idís often take an extra -t: -imist, -idíst. IMHO this is most typically Ulster and Connacht Irish.
Sometimes the autonomous form is delenited under the influence of the past tense forms: fanfaí, caithfí, but I don't think this is a particularly stable or regular feature in any dialect.
Habitual past. Habitual past, or imperfect, tells what used to happen in the past, often, frequently, repeatedly. It has basically the following forms:
CAITH:
chaithinn
chaiteá
chaitheadh sé
chaithimis
chaitheadh sibh
chaithidís
chaití
FAN:
d'fhanainn
d'fhantá
d'fhanadh sé
d'fhanaimis
d'fhanadh sibh
d'fhanaidís
d'fhantaí
OSCAIL:
d'osclaíonn
d'osclaíteá
d'osclaíodh sé
d'osclaímis
d'osclaíodh sibh
d'osclaídís
d'osclaítí
There is a very worrying tendency to use punctual past instead of habitual past in some elementary textbooks. This must be condemned, because it is quite unambiguously wrong. It is much better to use conditional mood instead of habitual past, because this is how some native dialects do, too.
Habitual past, as conditional mood, lenites initial consonants and takes the d' before vowels and mute fh's. However, it takes the r-less particles in negative, interrogative and subordinate contexts: nach bhfanainn/ná fanainn, chan fhanainn, ní fhanainn, go bhfanainn, an bhfanainn.
Habitual past forms can be used after dhá "if", mura/muna/mana "if not" and sula/sara, if there is a conditional mood in the main clause. In this context, the forms of habitual past are not called habitual past, but past subjunctive. Dhá n-osclófá an doras, bheadh cead isteach ag gach cineál feithidí. Or: Dhá n-osclaíteá an doras, bheadh cead isteach ag gach cineál feithidí. 'If you opened the door, all kinds of insects could get in.'
My impression is that a native writer who uses both habitual past and conditional mood for referring to habitual past actions, there is a slight but perceptible difference between the two:
Thagadh sé ar cuairt chugam agus bheannaíodh sé do na cuairteoirí go léir. D'ólfadh sé braon agus bheadh comhrá aige le duine nó dhó, agus chaithfeadh sé tamall ag imirt chártaí nó ag damhsa.
In this example, the habitual past forms (bold) refer to what always happened, i.e. this person used to come to visit me and greet everybody. Then we start using the conditional forms, when we refer to what typically happened, what this person typically might do at such an occasion, but did not do it in a particular order or not every time. If I say:
Thagadh sé ar cuairt chugam agus bheannaíodh sé do na cuairteoirí go léir. D'óladh sé braon agus bhíodh comhrá aige le duine nó dhó, agus chaitheadh sé tamall ag imirt chártaí nó ag damhsa.
...the impression conveyed is much more one of a ritual happening always in the same way and in the same order of events.
I confess that this is only my gut feeling, although it is based on a scene somewhere in Conchúr Ó Síocháin's Gaeltacht autobiography Seanchas Chléire (known in English as The Man from Cape Clear). I will make the relevant fragment available here (with all bibliographical references) as soon as I can (and as soon as I find the book).
By the way: in County Cork Irish it is common to leave the habitual past autonomous form delenited, which is another thing you will learn reading Ó Síocháin's book. Thus, caití and fantaí are normal occurrences in that particular dialect.
Sunday, May 19, 2019
Franz Kafka: Os Comhair an Dlí
Os Comhair an Dlí (translated from German)
(This is a standardized and revised version of the old translation I made back in the nineties. I am not sure whether this is copyright-free, and am happy to take this offline if there is a copyright problem.)
Tá doirseoir ina sheasamh os comhair an dlí. Seo chugainn fear ón tuath agus é ag lorg cead isteach ón doirseoir. Níl i ndán dó ach an dubheiteach, áfach. An fear a tháinig, déanann sé a mharana ar an scéal agus é ag fiafraí den doirseoir, an ligfear isteach níos déanaí é. "Gach seans go ligfear", a deir an doirseoir, "ach níl cead isteach agat anois cibé scéal é." Ó tá an doras mór ar oscailt, agus an doirseoir coiscéim i leataobh uaidh, cromann an fear ón tuath ar aghaidh le súil a chaitheamh isteach. Ag cur sonrú ann dó ligeann an doirseoir miongháirí as, agus é ag rá: "Má tá tú chomh santach sin, ná bíodh náire ort dul isteach in ainneoin an choisc a chuir mé ort. Ná déan dearmad, áfach, gur fear cumhachtach mise, siúd is nach bhfuil ionam ach an doirseoir is ísle céim. Ag dul ó sheomra go seomra duit gheobhaidh tú doirseoir eile romhat ag gach aon doras, agus iad níos cumhachtaí ná a chéile. An tríú doirseoir acu, tá sé chomh huafásach le feiceáil cheana gurb eagal liom féin a radharc."
dubheiteach: eiteach from the verb "eitigh/eiteach" to refuse. Dubh-eiteach means word for word "black refusal".
an doirseoir is ísle céim "the least important doorman, the doorman who is lowest as regards grade/importance"
...gurb eagal liom féin a radharc "that I am myself afraid of seeing him"
Ní raibh súil ag an bhfear eile le constaicí den chineál seo, nó is dóigh leis go mba chóir cead isteach a bheith ag gach aon duine in am ar bith i dtigh an dlí; ach ag baint lán a shúl as an doirseoir anois dó, as an gcóta mór feannaidh, as an ngaosán mór biorach, as an bhféasóg dhruidte fhada dhubh thanaí a chuirfeadh Tatárach i gcuimhne duit, is fearr leis fanacht amuigh go ligfear isteach é. Faigheann sé saoisteog ón doirseoir le suí síos in aice leis an doras. Ansin a chaitheas sé na laethanta is na blianta fada. Is iomaí uair a fhéachas sé le cead a fháil, agus é ag bodhrú an doirseora amach is amach ag impí is ag achainí air. Ó am go ham cuireann an doirseoir agallamh air ag fiafraí de mo dhuine cá háit arb as dó, nó cúrsaí pearsanta eile den chineál chéanna, ach is ceisteanna iad sin nach bhfuil croí ná suim an agallóra iontu, díreach mar is gnách do thiarnaí móra ceisteanna a chur ar an íochtarán; ach is é deireadh an scéil go ndeir an doirseoir le mo dhuine nach dtig leis é a ligean isteach. Tá fear na tuaithe gléasta go maith fá choinne an aistir a rinne sé, agus é ag tabhairt uaidh gach dá bhfuil aige leis an doirseoir a bhreabadh. Glacann seisean le cibé bronntanas atá le fáil, ach má ghlacann féin, deir sé: "Ní ghlacaim leis seo ach lena chinntiú nach gcreidfeá sa deireadh nár bhain tú triail as gach dá raibh agat." Is fánach uair a fhágas súil mo dhuine an doirseoir, agus an t-am ag sleamhnú thart. Déanann sé dearmad de na doirseoirí eile, agus é ag síleadh gurb é an fear seo an t-aon chonstaic amháin idir é agus an dlí. Déanann sé a ghearán faoin gcat mara a d'fhág an fear áirithe seo, thar aon duine eile, i mbun an dorais, ag caitheamh eascainí os ard ar dtús, agus ag cromadh ar mhonabhar íseal in imeacht na mblianta.
gaosán "nose" (Ulster word; srón would be less provincial)
cat mara "bad luck, unlucky destiny" (word for word, "sea-cat")
Téann sé in aois na leanbaíochta de réir a chéile, agus ó tá an oiread sin blianta caite aige ag déanamh a staidéir ar an doirseoir dó, is féidir leis na dreancaidí a aithint ar choiléar a chóta, agus é ag agairt na ndreancaidí féin cuidiú leis agus an doirseoir a chur ar athrú comhairle. I ndeireadh na dála tagann scáth ar sholas a shúl, agus é idir dhá chomhairle cé acu atá an lá ag druidim chun dorchadais, nó a shúile féin ag cliseadh air. Anois áfach cuireann sé sonrú i léaró solais istigh i dteach an dlí. Níl mórán saoil fágtha ag mo dhuine. Roimh an mbás fáisceann sé ceist amháin as cuimhní na mblianta a chaith sé anseo, ceist nár chuir sé ar an doirseoir roimhe seo. Tugann sé comhartha láimhe don doirseoir, nó níl sé in ann a chorp stromptha a dhíriú amach a thuilleadh. Caithfidh an doirseoir cromadh os a chionn, nó d'éirigh fear na tuaithe níos lú fós agus é ag cur a shaoil amú ina shuí anseo.
aois na leanbaíochta (also "aois na hóige", "an dara leanbaíocht") "second childhood", senility
dreancaid "flea"
agair!/agairt "to plead" (in this sense it takes a personal object: duine a agairt, d'agair sé mé. But note: díoltas a agairt ar dhuine, d'agair sé díoltas ar a shean-namhaid, when we use the verb for "to revenge, to wreak vengeance")
"Cad é atá de dhíth ort anois?" a deir an doirseoir, "tá tú doshásta ar fad".
doshásta "impossible to please, to satisfy"
"Tá na sluaite síoraí de dhaoine ar lorg a gcirt ón dlí", a deir an fear ón tuath, "cén fáth nár tháinig aon duine eile acu siúd an bealach céanna ag iarraidh cead isteach?"
na sluaite síoraí "masses of people"
Aithníonn an doirseoir go bhfuil an fear eile ag saothrú an bháis cheana, agus deir sé leis, ag búirfigh chomh hard is a thig leis, lena chinntiú go gcluinfear é: "Ní ligfí aon duine isteach anseo, nó fá do dhéin amháin a gearradh is a hosclaíodh an doras áirithe seo an chéad uair riamh. Rachaidh mé á dhúnadh go deo ar ball beag."
ag saothrú an bháis = sna céadéaga = ag foghlaim an bháis "dying"
(This is a standardized and revised version of the old translation I made back in the nineties. I am not sure whether this is copyright-free, and am happy to take this offline if there is a copyright problem.)
Tá doirseoir ina sheasamh os comhair an dlí. Seo chugainn fear ón tuath agus é ag lorg cead isteach ón doirseoir. Níl i ndán dó ach an dubheiteach, áfach. An fear a tháinig, déanann sé a mharana ar an scéal agus é ag fiafraí den doirseoir, an ligfear isteach níos déanaí é. "Gach seans go ligfear", a deir an doirseoir, "ach níl cead isteach agat anois cibé scéal é." Ó tá an doras mór ar oscailt, agus an doirseoir coiscéim i leataobh uaidh, cromann an fear ón tuath ar aghaidh le súil a chaitheamh isteach. Ag cur sonrú ann dó ligeann an doirseoir miongháirí as, agus é ag rá: "Má tá tú chomh santach sin, ná bíodh náire ort dul isteach in ainneoin an choisc a chuir mé ort. Ná déan dearmad, áfach, gur fear cumhachtach mise, siúd is nach bhfuil ionam ach an doirseoir is ísle céim. Ag dul ó sheomra go seomra duit gheobhaidh tú doirseoir eile romhat ag gach aon doras, agus iad níos cumhachtaí ná a chéile. An tríú doirseoir acu, tá sé chomh huafásach le feiceáil cheana gurb eagal liom féin a radharc."
dubheiteach: eiteach from the verb "eitigh/eiteach" to refuse. Dubh-eiteach means word for word "black refusal".
an doirseoir is ísle céim "the least important doorman, the doorman who is lowest as regards grade/importance"
...gurb eagal liom féin a radharc "that I am myself afraid of seeing him"
Ní raibh súil ag an bhfear eile le constaicí den chineál seo, nó is dóigh leis go mba chóir cead isteach a bheith ag gach aon duine in am ar bith i dtigh an dlí; ach ag baint lán a shúl as an doirseoir anois dó, as an gcóta mór feannaidh, as an ngaosán mór biorach, as an bhféasóg dhruidte fhada dhubh thanaí a chuirfeadh Tatárach i gcuimhne duit, is fearr leis fanacht amuigh go ligfear isteach é. Faigheann sé saoisteog ón doirseoir le suí síos in aice leis an doras. Ansin a chaitheas sé na laethanta is na blianta fada. Is iomaí uair a fhéachas sé le cead a fháil, agus é ag bodhrú an doirseora amach is amach ag impí is ag achainí air. Ó am go ham cuireann an doirseoir agallamh air ag fiafraí de mo dhuine cá háit arb as dó, nó cúrsaí pearsanta eile den chineál chéanna, ach is ceisteanna iad sin nach bhfuil croí ná suim an agallóra iontu, díreach mar is gnách do thiarnaí móra ceisteanna a chur ar an íochtarán; ach is é deireadh an scéil go ndeir an doirseoir le mo dhuine nach dtig leis é a ligean isteach. Tá fear na tuaithe gléasta go maith fá choinne an aistir a rinne sé, agus é ag tabhairt uaidh gach dá bhfuil aige leis an doirseoir a bhreabadh. Glacann seisean le cibé bronntanas atá le fáil, ach má ghlacann féin, deir sé: "Ní ghlacaim leis seo ach lena chinntiú nach gcreidfeá sa deireadh nár bhain tú triail as gach dá raibh agat." Is fánach uair a fhágas súil mo dhuine an doirseoir, agus an t-am ag sleamhnú thart. Déanann sé dearmad de na doirseoirí eile, agus é ag síleadh gurb é an fear seo an t-aon chonstaic amháin idir é agus an dlí. Déanann sé a ghearán faoin gcat mara a d'fhág an fear áirithe seo, thar aon duine eile, i mbun an dorais, ag caitheamh eascainí os ard ar dtús, agus ag cromadh ar mhonabhar íseal in imeacht na mblianta.
gaosán "nose" (Ulster word; srón would be less provincial)
cat mara "bad luck, unlucky destiny" (word for word, "sea-cat")
Téann sé in aois na leanbaíochta de réir a chéile, agus ó tá an oiread sin blianta caite aige ag déanamh a staidéir ar an doirseoir dó, is féidir leis na dreancaidí a aithint ar choiléar a chóta, agus é ag agairt na ndreancaidí féin cuidiú leis agus an doirseoir a chur ar athrú comhairle. I ndeireadh na dála tagann scáth ar sholas a shúl, agus é idir dhá chomhairle cé acu atá an lá ag druidim chun dorchadais, nó a shúile féin ag cliseadh air. Anois áfach cuireann sé sonrú i léaró solais istigh i dteach an dlí. Níl mórán saoil fágtha ag mo dhuine. Roimh an mbás fáisceann sé ceist amháin as cuimhní na mblianta a chaith sé anseo, ceist nár chuir sé ar an doirseoir roimhe seo. Tugann sé comhartha láimhe don doirseoir, nó níl sé in ann a chorp stromptha a dhíriú amach a thuilleadh. Caithfidh an doirseoir cromadh os a chionn, nó d'éirigh fear na tuaithe níos lú fós agus é ag cur a shaoil amú ina shuí anseo.
aois na leanbaíochta (also "aois na hóige", "an dara leanbaíocht") "second childhood", senility
dreancaid "flea"
agair!/agairt "to plead" (in this sense it takes a personal object: duine a agairt, d'agair sé mé. But note: díoltas a agairt ar dhuine, d'agair sé díoltas ar a shean-namhaid, when we use the verb for "to revenge, to wreak vengeance")
"Cad é atá de dhíth ort anois?" a deir an doirseoir, "tá tú doshásta ar fad".
doshásta "impossible to please, to satisfy"
"Tá na sluaite síoraí de dhaoine ar lorg a gcirt ón dlí", a deir an fear ón tuath, "cén fáth nár tháinig aon duine eile acu siúd an bealach céanna ag iarraidh cead isteach?"
na sluaite síoraí "masses of people"
Aithníonn an doirseoir go bhfuil an fear eile ag saothrú an bháis cheana, agus deir sé leis, ag búirfigh chomh hard is a thig leis, lena chinntiú go gcluinfear é: "Ní ligfí aon duine isteach anseo, nó fá do dhéin amháin a gearradh is a hosclaíodh an doras áirithe seo an chéad uair riamh. Rachaidh mé á dhúnadh go deo ar ball beag."
ag saothrú an bháis = sna céadéaga = ag foghlaim an bháis "dying"
Saturday, May 18, 2019
Ciclipéid na hOllchruinne: Sraith Balmer - X-radaíocht
Sraith
Balmer:
Is í sraith Balmer an tsraith línte i speictream na hidrigine a
sheasas do léimeanna an leictreoin idir an dara leictreonsceall is
laige fuinneamh agus na cinn os a chionn. Tá ceithre líne acu suite
i mbanda
an tsolais infheicthe, agus an chuid eile sa bhanda
ultraivialait. Fuair an tsraith a hainm ón bhfisiceoir Eilvéiseach
Johann Balmer a d'aithin an dóigh a raibh tonnfhaid na línte ag
brath ar a chéile agus a d'oibrigh amach foirmle mhatamaiticiúil a
cheadaigh do na fisiceoirí coibhneas na dtonnfhad a chomhaireamh. Ní
ba dhéanaí ghinearálaigh an Sualannach Johannes Rydberg cothromóid
Balmer go cothromóid Rydberg a chuir ar a gcumas tonnfhaid agus
minicíochtaí na sraitheanna eile a áireamh.
Is
í cothromóid Rydberg ná:
(1/λ)
= RZ2[(1/n12)-(1/n22)]
inarb
ionann:
- λ agus tonnfhad na líne speictrí
- R agus tairiseach Rydberg
- Z agus an uimhir adamhach, is é sin uimhir na bprótón i núicléas an adaimh (don hidrigin, is ionann í agus a haon)
- n1 agus an leibhéal fuinnimh óna léimeann an leictreon
- n2 agus an leibhéal fuinnimh a léiméann an leictreon go dtí é
Nuair
atá n2
ag dul i dtreo na héigríche (∞),
tá (1/n22)
ag dul go hasamtóiteach i dtreo an neamhní. Mar sin, má ligtear
(1/n22)
ar lár sa chothromóid, is féidir íosteorainn a chomhaireamh do
thonnfhad na sraithe. Tabhair
faoi deara nach bhfuil an chothromóid seo i bhfeidhm ach i gcóras
atá comhdhéanta as núicléas agus aon leictreon amháin – go
praiticiúil is ionann sin agus adamh hidrigine. Dá
mbeadh tuilleadh leictreon ann rachadh castacht na cothromóide thar
acmhainn na matamaiticeoirí féin.
Is
é tonnfhad an chéad líne i sraith Balmer ná 656 nanaiméadar,
agus is í teorainn na sraithe ná 364.6 nanaiméadar.
Sraith
Brackett:
Is í sraith Brackett an tsraith línte i speictream na hidrigine a
sheasas do léimeanna an leictreoin idir an ceathrú leictreonsceall
is laige fuinneamh agus na leibhéil fhuinnimh os a chionn. Fuair an
tsraith a hainm ón bhfisiceoir Meiriceánach Frederick Sumner
Brackett (1896-1988)
a d'aithin
an tsraith seo sa bhliain 1922.
Is
é tonnfhad an chéad líne i sraith Brackett ná 4051 nanaiméadar,
agus is í teorainn na sraithe ná 1458 nanaiméadar.
Sraith
Humphreys:
Is í sraith Humphreys an tsraith línte i speictream na hidrigine a
sheasas do léimeanna an leictreoin idir an séú leictreonsceall is
laige fuinneamh agus na leibhéil os a chionn. Fuair an tsraith a
hainm ón bhfisiceoir Meiriceánach Curtis Humphreys (1898-1986)
a
rinne a fionnachtain.
Is
é tonnfhad an chéad líne sa tsraith ná 12.37 micriméadar (12,370
nanaiméadar) ,
agus is í an teorainn ná 3.282 micriméadar (3,282
nanaiméadar).
Sraith
Lyman:
Is í sraith Lyman an tsraith línte i speictream na hidrigine a
sheasas do léimeanna an leictreoin idir an leictreonsceall is laige
fuinneamh agus na cinn os a chionn. Tá línte speictreacha na
sraithe seo suite sa bhanda
ultraivialait, is é sin, níl siad infheicthe. Fuair an tsraith a
hainm ón bhfisiceoir Meiriceánach Theodore Lyman.
Is
é tonnfhad an chéad líne i sraith Lyman ná 121.6 nanaiméadar,
agus is í teorainn na sraithe ná 91.18 nanaiméadar.
Sraith
Paschen:
Is í sraith Paschen an tsraith línte i speictream na hidrigine a
sheasas do léimeanna an leictreoin idir an tríú leictreonsceall is
laige fuinneamh agus na leibhéil os a chionn. Tá línte
speictreacha na sraithe seo suite sa bhanda
infridhearg, is é sin, tá a dtonnfhad níos mó ná tonnfhad an
tsolais infheicthe, agus dá réir sin, tá a minicíocht níos ísle.
Fuair an tsraith a hainm ón bhfisiceoir Gearmánach Friedrich
Paschen.
Is
é tonnfhad an chéad líne i sraith Paschen ná 1875 nanaiméadar,
agus is í teorainn na sraithe ná 820.4 nanaiméadar.
Sraith
Pfund:
Is í sraith Pfund an tsraith línte i speictream na hidrigine a
sheasas do léimeanna an leictreoin idir an cúigiú leictreonsceall
is laige fuinneamh agus na leibhéil os a chionn. Fuair an tsraith a
hainm ón bhfisiceoir Meiriceánach August Herman Pfund.
Is
é tonnfhad an chéad líne i sraith Pfund ná 7460 nanaiméadar,
agus is í teorainn na sraithe ná 2279 nanaiméadar.
Tagra
nó tagra
geodasaíochta a
thugtar ar an leibhéal tagartha airde a bhfuil meas an ”neamhní”
air – ar an ”dromchla farraige” a luaitear, abair, le hairde na
sléibhte. Le fírinne áfach is féidir an tagra a shainiú ar
dhóigheanna éagsúla.
Teicnéitiam
atá
ar dhúil cheimiceach uimhir a trí
is dhá scór
i dTábla Peiriadach na nDúl, agus is é an giorrúchán a sheasas
dó sna foirmlí ceimiceacha ná Tc.
Is miotal trasdultach é, agus é in aon ghrúpa leis an mangainéis
agus an réiniam. Thar aon rud eile, áfach, is é an teicnéitiam an
dúil is éadroime acu siúd nach bhfuil ach iseatóip
radaighníomhacha acu. Is é an t-iseatóp is cobhsaí dá bhfuil
aige ná teicnéitiam a naoi ndéag is ceithre scór (99Tc),
agus é 211,000 bliain ar leathré.
Ba
é an fisiceoir Iodálach Emilio Segrè a d'aithin an teicnéitiam an
chéad uair riamh, cé go raibh torthaí bréagdheimhneacha tugtha
roimhe sin ag eolaithe a shíl go raibh dúil a 43 fionnta acu. Ar
cuairt sna Stáit Aontaithe dó chuir Segrè suim sa chioglatrón
(luasaire cáithníní) i Saotharlann Berkeley, agus thug Ernest
Lawrence, an fear a chéadcheap an gléas, scragall úsáidte ón
gcioglatrón dó, le go bhféadfadh sé taighde a dhéanamh ar na
núiclídí radaighníomhacha a d'fhág an úsáid sa scragall. Bhí
an scragall déanta as molaibdéineam, dúil uimhir a 42, agus
teoiric ag Segrè gur iseatóp de chuid dhúil a 43 a bhí ar fáil
sa scragall. Le cuidiú óna chara Carlo Perrier, a bhí ina
mhianreolaí,
chruthaigh sé gurbh amhlaidh.
Bhí
Segrè ag obair in Ollscoil Palermo, agus d'iarr lucht rialtais an
bhardais
go mbaistfeadh sé panóirmiam
ar an dúil nua, ainm a bhí bunaithe ar an leagan Laidine d'ainm na
cathrach, Panormus. Sa bhliain 1947, aon bhliain déag i ndiaidh do
Segrè an fhionnachtain a dhéanamh, bhaist eagraíocht idirnáisiúnta
na gceimiceoirí teicnéitiam
ar
an dúil, ós rud é gur dúil shaorga (tekhnetos
an
focal Sean-Ghréigise
a chiallaíos ”saorga, daondéanta”)
í nach bhfuil ar fáil sa dúlra go
nádúrtha
– tá gaol ag an ainm le teicneolaíocht,
ar ndóigh.
Miotal
trom é an teicnéitiam a gcuirfeadh a chosúlacht platanam i
gcuimhne duit. Is iad na staideanna ocsaídiúcháin is coitianta a
bhíos aige ina chuid comhdhúl ná +4, +5, agus +7. Tagann smúid
ocsaíde ar an teicnéitiam le taise an aeir, agus is féidir an
miotal a chur trí thine in atmaisféar glanocsaigine.
Teinisín
a
thugtar ar dhúil cheimiceach uimhir a 117, agus is é an giorrúchán
a sheasas don teinisín ná Ts.
Fuair an dúil a hainm ó stát Tennessee sna Stáit Aontaithe, nó
tá saotharlann fisice núicléiche Oak Ridge suite sa stát sin.
Dúil
throm thrasúránach é
an teinisín agus é
chomh radaighníomhach is nach bhfuil na heolaithe ábalta mórán
taighde a dhéanamh ar a shaintréithe
ceimiceacha.
Triantán
an Gheimhridh:
Is é Triantán an Gheimhridh astaireacht na réaltaí úd Sirius,
Betelgeuse, agus Procyon – na réaltaí is gile i réaltbhuíonta
an Mhadra Mhóir, an Bhodaigh, agus an Mhadra Bhig.
Triantán
an tSamhraidh a
thugtar ar Altair, Vega, agus Deneb in éineacht – na réaltaí is
gile i réaltbhuíonta an Iolair, na Líre, agus na hEala.
Úfó
an
giorrúchán Béarla a chiallaíos ”réad eitilte gan aithint”.
Is minic a shíltear gurb ionann úfó agus spásbhád
eachtardhomhanda, ach ní mar sin atá: dá n-aithneofaí mar
spáslong de chuid na bhfear beag uaine é, ní bheadh sé ina úfó
(is é sin, gan aithint) a thuilleadh!
Cé
go mbítear ag cur sonrú i rudaí aisteacha thuas san aer ó tháinig
an cine daonna chun saoil, ní dhearnadh coincheap ar leith den úfó
ach i ndiaidh an Dara Cogadh Domhanda. Sa bhliain 1947 chonaic an
t-eitleoir amaitéarach Meiriceánach Kenneth Arnold dioscaí
aisteacha ina thimpeall agus é díreach ag eitilt thart le Sliabh
Rainier (nó Sliabh Tacoma), an sliabh is airde sna Sléibhte
Cascáideacha i Stát Washington, Iarthuaisceart na Stát Aontaithe.
Is minic a chreidtear gurbh é Arnold a bhaist ainm an ”tsásair
eitilte” ar na dioscaí seo, ach is deacair a rá an mar sin a bhí
– is féidir gurbh iad na nuachtáin a bhain an chéad úsáid as
an téarma sin.
Níorbh
é Arnold an t-aon duine a thug tuairisc ar an gcineál seo
breathnuithe san am, agus ghlac Aerfhórsa na Stát Aontaithe imní:
an raibh sibhialtaigh tar éis sonrú a chur in aerárthaí rúnda de
chuid an Aerfhórsa féin, nó an raibh gléasra spiaireachta de
chuid na Sóivéadach i gceist? Nó an ea nach raibh ann tar éis an
tsaoil ach iomrall súl? Chuir an tAerfhórsa tús le Project
Sign,
tionscadal taighde a bhí dírithe ar a fháil amach cad é ba chúis
leis na sásair eitilte. Dealraíonn sé gur rith an míniú
”eachtardhomhanda” le daoine acu siúd a raibh baint acu leis an
tionscadal seo, cé go raibh a lán d'oifigigh an Aerfhórsa barúlach
gurbh ón Aontas Sóivéadach a tháinig na sásair, agus córas
tiomána acu nach raibh ar eolas ag innealtóirí na Stát Aontaithe.
Iad siúd a chreid sa teoiric Shóivéadach, bhí siad ag déanamh
gur cineál cogaíocht shíceolaíoch a bhí idir lámhaibh ag na
Rúisigh chomh dána dalba is a bhí na húfónna ag eitilt in
aerspás na Stát.
Ní
raibh údaráis an Aerfhórsa sásta le torthaí Project
Sign,
agus thosaigh siad ar thionscadal nua, Project
Grudge.
Sa bhliain 1949 d'eisigh Grudge
a
chuid torthaí: glacadh leis nach raibh na húfónna ag bagairt ar
shlándáil náisiúnta na Stát Aontaithe, a fhad agus a d'fhéadfaí
a mheá, agus nach raibh iontu go bunúsach ach míthuiscintí ar
rudaí nádúrtha nó ar réadanna neamhurchóideacha eile.
Ba
é tionscadal an Leabhair Ghoirm, nó Project
Blue Book,
an tríú hiarracht oifigiúil a rinneadh sna Stáit le taighde a
dhéanamh ar na húfónna. Chaith lucht an Leabhair Ghoirm na blianta
fada ag bailiú scéalta faoi úfónna agus á n-anailísiú, agus sa
bhliain 1968, foilsíodh tuairisc faoin teideal ”Staidéar Eolaíoch
ar na Réadanna Eitilte gan Aithint”, nó ”Tuairisc Condon”,
mar is gnách í a ainmniú, ós fisiceoir darbh ainm Edward Condon a
bhí i gceannas ar an gcoiste a dhréachtaigh an tuairisc. Is iad na
torthaí a bhí le léamh ar an tuairisc seo ná nach raibh na
húfónna ag bagairt ar shlándáil náisiúnta na Stát Aontaithe,
ná teicneolaíocht ardfhorbartha nó cuairteoirí eachtardhomhanda
ag baint leo, de réir na fianaise a bhí ann.
Idir
an dá linn áfach tháinig cultas na n-úfónna ar an bhfód, agus
dreamanna beaga díograiseoirí ag fógairt gur spásbháid ó
phláinéid eile a bhí i gceist. Le fírinne chuir an CIA –
lárúdarás faisnéise na Stát Aontaithe – ar bun coiste taighde
dá gcuid féin faoi cheannas an fhisiceora Howard Percy Robertson,
”Painéal Robertson”, sa bhliain 1951. Ba iad torthaí oibre an
phainéil seo ná nach sna húfónna a bhí an bhagairt, ach sna
díograiseoirí: dá mbeadh lucht an Aerfhórsa, na réadlanna
réalteolaíocha agus na stáisiúin bhreathnóireachta eile curtha
thar a n-acmhainn ag tuairiscí seafóideacha faoi úfónna, ní
fhéadfaidís súil a choinneáil ar eitleáin spiaireachta an
Aontais Shóivéadaigh. Thairis sin, d'fhéadfadh na Sóivéadaigh
dochar a dhéanamh do shíocháin inmheánach na Stát Aontaithe trí
spreagadh a thabhairt do chultas na n-úfónna – mar a dúirt
paínéal Robertson.
Tríd
is tríd, ba é toradh na bhfiosruithe seo ná nach raibh rud
osnádúrtha, neamhshaolta nó neamhghnách ar bith i gceist leis na
húfónna. D'admhaigh na taighdeoirí nach raibh siad ábalta gach
uile bhreathnú a mhíniú go fóill ach san am chéanna bhí siad
dóchasach go bhfreagródh an eolaíocht gach aon cheist sa deireadh.
Xeanón
atá
ar dhúil cheimiceach uimhir a 54. Xe
an
tsiombail cheimiceach, agus
is é an meáchan adamhach atá aige ná 131.29.
Ceann de na triathgháis é an xeanón, agus ochtréad iomlán ar an
sceall is faide amuigh sa néal
leictreon
aige, rud a fhágas nach bhfuil sé araiciseach chun imoibriúcháin.
Mar sin féin is féidir leis an xeanón dul i gcomhdhúile
ceimiceacha áirithe, go háirithe leis an bhfluairín, arb é an
t-ocsaídeoir is láidre de na dúile go léir. Úsáidtear xeanón i
bhfeadáin solais, nó is dual dó solas gorm a dhéanamh má
chuirtear réimse leictreachais i bhfeidhm air.
Tá
a lán iseatóp cobhsaí ag an xeanón, ocht
gcinn acu
ar fad. Thairis
sin, tá aon raidiseatóp nádúrtha amháin aige,
agus é chomh fadsaolach is gur féidir neamhshuim a dhéanamh dá
radaighníomhaíocht.
ISEATÓIP NÁDÚRTHA AN XEANÓIN
|
||
Maisuimhir |
Céatadán i xeanón an dúlra |
Radaighníomhaíocht |
124 |
0.1 |
Ar chúiseanna teoiriciúla táthar
ag déanamh go dtagann béite-mheath dúbailte ar an iseatóp seo.
Níl fianaise ar bith ann leis an teoiric seo a fhíorú, agus mar
sin glactar leis gur núiclíd chobhsaí atá ann go praiticiúil. |
126 |
0.09 |
cobhsaí |
128 |
1.9 |
cobhsaí |
129 |
26.4 |
cobhsaí |
130 |
4.1 |
cobhsaí |
131 |
21.2 |
cobhsaí |
132 |
26.9 |
cobhsaí |
134 |
10.4 |
Ar chúiseanna teoiriciúla táthar
ag déanamh go dtagann béite-mheath dúbailte ar an iseatóp seo.
Níl fianaise ar bith ann leis an teoiric seo a fhíorú, agus mar
sin glactar leis gur núiclíd chobhsaí atá ann go praiticiúil. |
136 |
(iarsmaí beaga) |
béite-mheath dúbailte, leathré
timpeall is 2 x 1011 bliain
|
Níl
flúirse xeanóin in atmaisféar an Domhain, agus níl an triathghás
áirithe seo róraidhsiúil ar na pláinéid eile ach an oiread. Is é
Iúpatar an pláinéad is saibhre sa xeanón, rud is ábhar suime
agus suntais do na heolaithe.
Níl
nimh i gciall cheart an fhocail sa xeanón, ach is féidir leis dul i
bhfeidhm ar an inchinn agus néal a chur i do cheann: má análaítear
isteach é, rachaidh sé tríd an mbacainn idir an fhuil agus an
inchinn. Le fírinne úsáidtear mar ainéistéiseach sa mháinliacht
é ar an gcúis áirithe seo. Maidir le comhdhúile an xeanóin, is
ocsaídeoirí láidire iad go coitianta, agus iad an-fhonnmhar chun
imoibriúcháin: dá réir sin bíonn siad i bhfad níos dainséaraí,
níos díobhálaí don duine ná an gás féin.
X-radaíocht
a thugtar ar an radaíocht atá níos tonnfhaide ná an
gháma-radaíocht, níos tonnghiorra ná an radaíocht ultraivialait.
Ba é Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen a d'aithin an X-radaíocht an chéad
uair sa bhliain 1895, agus ina lán teangacha tugtar ”radaíocht
Röntgen” ar an gcineál seo radaíochta. Úsáidtear X-ghathanna
(is é sin, gathanna X-radaíochta) sa dochtúireacht (le pictiúirí
a thógáil de chnámha an duine bheo, ach go háirithe) agus sna
seiceálacha slándála ar na haerfoirt (le fáil amach faoina bhfuil
istigh i mála dúnta). Chomh saibhir is atá na gathanna seo i
bhfuinneamh áfach baineann priacal áirithe ailse leo, nó
déanann siad dochar do na comhdhúile íogaire bithcheimiceacha sna
cealla beo.
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